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ran Set tee akin tiem Gotten thn ae ewe Fe Actin Bsa si: “2 ee Asleehctbalh 2 f ye

Bf RAG ne

CO vi 7

ark

THE

Pine Gis ING»

OF THE

LINNEAN SOCIETY

OF

New SoutH WALES

FOR THE YEAR

1944

VOL. LXIX.

WITH TEN PLATES. 166 Text-figures and 1 Map.

SYDNEY: PRINTED AND PUBLISHED FOR THE SOCIETY BY

AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CO. LTD., Seamer Street, Glebe, Sydney,

and SOLD BY THE SOCIETY.

1944.

ii

CONTENTS OF PROCEEDINGS, 1944.

PARTS I-II (Nos. 311-312). (Issued 15th May, 1944.)

Pages.

Presidential Address, delivered at the Sixty-ninth Annual General Meeting, 29th March, 1944, by E. Le G. Troughton, C.M.Z.S., F.R.Z.S... .. .. .. i-xvi BSI@GCEVOMS: ai oh RA See ee en) EES area cep em xvi Balance Sheets for the Year ending 29th February, 1944 eRe ie ne wy 2.400 L>.4 >.< Abstract of Proceedings Beat Sef V corias sb aisbe, & Mecca Seats) Paes tet tel en, Rea’ oC i xx

New or Little-known Species of Australian Tipulidae (Diptera). ii. By Charles

P. Alexander, F.R.E.S. (Communicated by F. H. Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.S.) (Seven: TEXt-AoWres yyw ee el Tee Se pai ns ules | lone eee i lke Sea etre ne Ree as)

Studies in Australian Embioptera. vii. New Embioptera from Tropical Australia. By Consett Davis, D.Sc. (Fourteen Text-figures. ) Ree tO aes 16-20

A New Species of the Genus Anopheles from Northern Australia (Diptera, Culicidae). By D. J. Lee, B.Sc. (Nine Text-figures. ) snot hae ee 21-25

Origin of the New South Wales Torbanites. By J. A. Dulhunty, B.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geology. (Plate i and three Text-figures.) 26-48

Revision of Australian Lepidoptera. Oecophoridae. xi. By A. Jefferis Turner, WIiSID)., IP IRIS SUSE a RON hie 0 ae REEL os gad My ee te ae ne 49-61

The Subspecies of Anopheles amictus Edwards (Diptera, Culicidae). By A. R. Woodhill (A.A.M.C., Australia) and D. J. Lee. (Hight Text-figures.) .. .. 62-66

Some New Records and New Synonymy of Australian Species of Anopheles (Diptera, Culicidae). By A. R. Woodhill (A.A.M.C., Australia ) and Da Te Dee ee ee ee eer Cre an, ae ee ee em Tle

CONTENTS,

PARTS III-IV (Nos. 313-314).

(Issued 15th September, 1944.)

Notes on Australian Orchids. By the Rev. H. M. R. Rupp, B.A. ..

Miscellaneous Notes on Australian Diptera. x. Distribution, Classification and the Tabanus posticus-group. By G. H. Hardy. (One Text-figure. )

A Modified Respirometer for Studies on the Respiratory Quotient of Apples. By S. M. Sykes, B.Se.Agr. (One Text-figure. )

Studies in the Metabolism of Apples. iv. Further Studies in the Respiratory Metabolism of Granny Smith Apples, with Special Reference to the Importance of Oxygen Supply. By Frances M. V. Hackney, M.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Plant Physiology. (Ten Text-figures.)

Studies in the Metabolism of Apples. vy. The Respiratory Metabolism of Delicious Apples of Commercial Maturity after Various Periods of Cool Storage. By Frances M. V. Hackney, M.Sc., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Plant Physiology. (Six Text-figures.)

Contributions to a Knowledge of Australian Culicidae. No. vii. By Frank H. Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.S. (Nine Text-figures.)

Petrology of the Hartley District. v. Evidence of Hybridization in the Moyne Farm Intrusion: A Revision. By Germaine A. Joplin, B.Sc., Ph.D., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geology. (Plate ii and one Text-figure.)

Bryozoa from the Permian of Western Australia. Part i. Cyclostomata and Cryptostomata from the North-West Basin and Kimberley District. By Joan Crockford, M.Sce., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Palaeontology. (Plates iv—v and fifty-two Text-figures.)

Alexander Greenlaw Hamilton (Memorial Series, No. 10) -( With Portrait)

Arachnid Notes. By Frank H. Taylor, F.R.E.S., F.Z.S. (Nine Text-figures.)

ill

Pages. 13-75

76-86

87-90

91-107

108-119

120-128

129-138

139-175

176-184

185-187

0? & EEE?

iv CONTENTS.

PARTS V-VI (Nos. 315-316). (Issued 15th December, 1944.)

Notes on Australian Boarmiidae and Oenochromidae (Lepidoptera) with Descriptions of New Species. By the late G. M. Goldfinch. (Communicated ON) IDR, Als dls WUC, JONI ING)

The Geology of the Albury District. By Germaine A. Joplin, B.Sc., Ph.D., Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geology. (Plates vi—viii and three Text-figures. )

Production of Nitrate from Roots and Root Nodules of Lucerne and Subter- ranean Clover. By H. L. Jensen, Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society, and Dorothy Frith, B.Sc.Agr. (One Text-figure.)

Notes on Australian Mosquitoes (Diptera, Culicidae). Part v. The Genus Armigeres, and New Species of Armigeres, Theobaldia and Culex. By D. J. Lee, B.Se. (Twenty-two Text-figures. )

Studies on Australian Marine Algae. i. The Corrected Name for Pterocladia pectinata (A. & E. S. Gepp) Lucas. By Valerie May, M.Se. (Six Text- figures. )

Nitrogen Fixation in Leguminous Plants. v. Gains of Nitrogen by Medicago and Trifolium in Acid and Alkaline Soil. By H. L. Jensen, Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society

Notes on the Geology, Physiography and Glaciology of the Kosciusko Area and the Country north of it. By W. R. Browne, D.Sc., J. A. Dulhunty, B.Sc.,

and W. H. Maze, M.Sc. (Plates ix—x, four Text-figures and one Map) ..

Revision of Australian Lepidoptera. Oecophoridae. xii. By A. Jefferis Turner, WIID) JBUIR IBIS |.

A Critical Revision of R. D. Fitzgerald’s “Australian Orchids’. By the Rev. Hei eRe Rup py eA

Abstract of Proceedings List of Plates .. Corrigendum

General Index

Pages.

189-197

198-209

226-228

229-237

253-273

274-278

. XXi-xxiv

XXIV

XXiV

. XXV—-XXVi

LOnisiG Chie INK? (CCveKeIey ENTO SINXOKS, Go--65 66 65. oo doce 40 oe oo DOQni-yexm

ANNUAL GENERAL MEERTING. WEDNESDAY, 29th Marcu, 1944.

The Sixty-ninth Annual General Meeting was held in the Society’s Rooms, Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, on Wednesday, 29th March, 1944.

Mr. HE. Le G. Troughton, C.M.Z.S., F.R.Z.S., President, in the Chair.

The minutes of the preceding Annual General Meeting (31st March, 1943) were read and confirmed.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

In presenting this Report of work begun in the fourth year of the Second World War, I knew that members will fully appreciate the manner in which the Society’s activities, due largely to the researches of our Macleay Bacteriologist and highly qualified Fellows, have become adjusted to the needs and restrictions of war-time. The resumption of evening meetings, resulting from relaxation of the “black-out’” regulations, while reflecting a reassuring general improvement in the immediate war situation, did not result in any noticeable improvement in attendances, although the Council provided interesting addresses when papers were not available. It is, of course, well understood that present conditions inevitably affect the conduct of scientific work, as well as the freedom of members wishing to attend the meetings. It is, however, to be hoped that the coming year may show a marked improvement in attendances, to which end I would suggest that where possible papers be presented in the form of a summary of the research problem, results achieved, and prospects for further research, rather than relying almost entirely on diagrammatic illustration. The presentation of exhibits by members, in which there has been a notable decline, would add a very desirable personal touch to the general interest of the meetings.

Careful supervision has been exercised over the Society’s funds and the expenditure in the General Account has been kept within the normal income for the year. The deficit shown in the income of the General Account results from interest overdue in respect of two mortgages, but there is no reason to think that these arrears of interest will not be received. There will be continued necessity for the exercising of strict economy by the Council, as we may expect that there will be a successive loss of income in the near future at each conversion of Commonwealth and other loans in view of the Governmental policy of keeping interest rates down.

The concluding part of Volume lxviii of the Society’s Proceedings was issued in December. The complete volume (254 + xxiv pages, twelve plates, and 110 text- figures) contains twenty-two papers on various branches of Natural History and, in addition, a memorial acccount of Herbert James Carter. As in the preceding year, so many members were either occupied with special war work or actually in the fighting services, that the number of papers submitted for publication showed a very marked decline and, in consequence, the volume was much smaller than in previous years.

Exchanges from scientific societies and institutions for the session amounted to 878 compared with 1,383, 1,200 and 749 for the three preceding years. During the year the Society has co-operated with the Allied Geographical Section, South-west Pacific Area, in the preparation of an annotated bibliography of all published material in Australia dealing with the South-west Pacific.

Since the last Annual Meeting the names of eight new members have been added to the list and three members have resigned.

Because of ill-health Dr. G. A. Waterhouse did not seek re-election as Honorary Treasurer in April, 1943, and Dr. A. B. Walkom was unanimously elected to fill this position in which Dr. Waterhouse had served the Society for fifteen years during 1926—

A

il PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

1943. Council elected Dr. Waterhouse a Vice-President of the Society for the 1943-1944 session. After; over thirty years’ service, Dr. G. A. Waterhouse resigned from member- ship of the Council-.in November, 1943, and as an expression of appreciation of his untiring and valuable services: to the Society, Council elected him a Corresponding Member.

The vacancies in the Council resulting from the resignations of Professor W. J. Dakin and Dr. G. A. Waterhouse were filled by the election of Mr. A. N. Colefax, B.Sc., and Mr. W. H. Maze, M.Sc., and in December, 1943, Mr. T. C. Roughley, B.Sc., F.R.Z.S., was elected a Vice-President in place of Dr. G. A. Waterhouse.

During the year a committee of the Council was appointed to consider the advisability of approaching the Federal Government concerning the Commonwealth control of flora. In view of the obviously adverse effect upon the flora and fauna your Council also gave its support to other Natural History societies in protest against the Government’s proposal to lease the major portion of the Kosciusko National Park area for grazing.

It is a pleasure to be able to announce that, early in the year, the Government of New South Wales passed the “Sir Joseph Banks Memorial Fund Act, 1943” establishing a trust of eight members to make recommendations concerning the utilization of the fund collected many years ago to commemorate the life and work of Sir Joseph Banks. In addition to the Chairman, the trust consists of the Principal Librarian of the Public Library and representatives of the following: the Naturalists’ Society, the Royal Zoological Society, the Royal Australian Historical Society, the Linnean Society, the Trustees of Captain Cook’s Landing Place, and the Minister of Agriculture and Forests. The Secretary, Dr. N. S. Noble, represented this Society at a number of meetings of the Trust, and a report prepared for the State Government late in 1943 sets out a series of recommendations regarding the disposal of the fund.

During the year your Council also elected Archdeacon F. E. Haviland a Corresponding Member of the Society in appreciation of his botanical contributions.

We offer congratulations to Dr. G. A. Waterhouse on being elected a Special Life Fellow of the Royal Entomological Society of London, to Dr. W. L. Waterhouse on his award of the Clarke Memorial Medal by the Royal Society of New South Wales, to Mr. E. Cheel on his award of the Medal of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and to Dr. H. F. Consett Davis on attaining the degree of Doctor of Science of the University of Sydney.

Mr. R. C. Betty, B.Se., who had been assistant to the Macleay Bacteriologist from 1st February, 1941, resigned on 31st May, 1943, and Mrs. Dorothy M. Frith, B.Sc.Agr. (née Killeen), who was selected by your Council to take his place, took up her duties on ist July, 1943.

In 1939, when Dr. Jensen proposed to initiate a programme of research into nitrogen- fixing bacteria in our soils, four banking institutions provided sufficient funds for the erection of a plant house within the grounds of the University of Sydney and for the employment of an assistant to the Bacteriologist for a period of more than three years. Though Dr. Jensen had made considerable progress in his investigations on soil fertility it was felt that further extensive research in this field would prove of great value. Late in 1948, therefore, as the funds available for payment of an assistant were almost exhausted, the Executive approached the Commonwealth Bank of Australia, the Rural Bank of New South Wales, the Commercial Banking Company of Sydney, Ltd., and the Bank of New South Wales and I am pleased to say that all of the banks concerned have again provided such generous financial support that the salary of an assistant to the Macleay Bacteriologist is assured for at least a further three years.

The year’s work of the Society’s research staff may be summarized thus:

Dr. H. L. Jensen, Macleay Bacteriologist to the Society, has continued his work on symbiotic nitrogen fixation in pasture legumes. Molybdenum has been found to have a stronger stimulating effect on nitrogen fixation in lucerne than on the uptake of combined nitrogen. Experiments on the influence of soil reaction on nitrogen fixation have shown that the number of root nodules is lower, but the weight of nodules in proportion to the total plant is generally higher, at acid, than at alkaline or neutral,

-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. iii

reaction. The nitrogen-fixing efficiency of the nodules, expressed as gain of nitrogen per unit weight of nodule-substance, decreases at acid reaction in both Medicago and Trifolium, but the actual gains of nitrogen may, especially in the latter, remain unaltered within wide limits. Molybdenum deficiency has an effect on the efficiency of the nodules similar to that of acid reaction. Two papers on these problems have been published in these Procrrpines. As in the previous year, Dr. Jensen has undertaken the investigation of a number of war-time problems and has achieved further results of considerable value. Since June, 1943, when your Council approved of his name being placed on a special panel for this purpose, his investigations for the army on the deterioration and preserva- tion of military equipment due to mould growth under tropical conditions have been undertaken through the intermediary of the Scientific Liaison Bureau. The checking of sterility of dried blood serum has been continued and the antiseptic effect of locally manutactured drugs has been tested. Dr. Jensen also published a note in The Medical Journal of Australia on the preservation of blood for transfusion purposes, and the method recommended has been accepted by the Blood Transfusion Service. As in the previous year, in the absence of the regular lecturer, Dr. Jensen delivered the course in Agricultural Bacteriology at the University of Sydney.

During the first half of the year Mr. J. A. Dulhunty, Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geology, concluded his research on the classification and origin of the New South Wales torbanites. Later in the year two papers dealing with the results were submitted for publication and already one of these has been published in these Procreepines. As Mr. Dulhunty had completed his researches on torbanites earlier than had been anticipated your Council gave approval for the commencement of research on the New South Wales coals. The coal problems are closely allied to those of the torbanite deposits, and involve the application of experience and technique gained during the study of torbanites. The problems on which work was carried out during the latter part of the year were the determination of microspore assemblages with the object of correlating seams, and the study of field evidence bearing on environmental conditions of coal formation.

During the first part of the year Dr. Germaine A. Joplin, Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Geology, in continuation of her study of the Ordovician of New South Wales worked on material collected north of Cooma in the vicinity of Murrumbucka, Bunyan and Bredbo. In a paper dealing with this area, published in these PROCEEDINGS later in the year, an attempt was made to interpret the structure, sequence and tectonic history of the Ordovician rocks in the whole of the Cooma region. During a trip early in the year reconnaissance work was undertaken at Albury, and on a later trip some detailed mapping was carried out. This study is still in its initial stages, but so far results show very marked similarities between the Ordovician rocks of this area and those of Cooma. Nevertheless, there are indications of interesting differences between the Cooma and Albury Complexes that may prove slight differences in the sequence of tectonic events, or differences in the erosion level of the two metamorphic complexes.

Miss Frances M. V. Hackney, Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Plant Physiology, continued experiments with mature Granny Smith and Delicious apples after various periods of cool storage. In the early samples of Granny Smith apples the respiration rate generally rose soon after removal from store, and fell subsequently. The resistance of the skin to gaseous diffusion rose and the internal concentration of oxygen fell. In later samples the respiration rate did not rise and the resistance of the skin to the diffusion of oxygen increased. The internal oxygen concentration was initially low and showed little change subsequently. Throughout the year the respiratory quotient was approximately 1:0. In early samples of mature Granny Smith apples the respiration rate increased greatly in an atmosphere of pure oxygen, but in later samples this effect was much less marked. Oxygen supply was probably limiting respiration rate in the early samples. In immature Granny Smith apples, where the resistance to oxygen was low, increased oxygen supply had no effect on respiration. The respiratory behaviour of Delicious apples differed from that of Granny Smith apples, the marked changes which occurred in resistance of the skin in the latter variety not being generally observed in Delicious apples.

iv PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

Miss Joan M. Crockford, Linnean Macleay Fellow of the Society in Palaeontology, carried out research on Palaeozoic Bryozoa, dealing principally with Permian faunas, especially those of Western Australia and the Northern Territory. This work has included a re-examination of the type specimens of species previously described from these areas, and the revision of species previously described from the Northern Territory has been published in these ProcrrpInes. In addition, work was commenced on the description of the new species which form the most abundant part of the Western Australian Permian faunas. A paper dealing with the occurrence of Bryozoa in the Ordovician of Central Australia has also been published in these Procrrpines. Miss Crockford is preparing for publication a general review of the development of Bryozoa in the Palaeozoic of Australia, to indicate the degree of development of these faunas in rocks of different age, the assemblages of family and generic groups present in different formations, and to discuss the distribution of species so far described and, where possible, the affinities of the faunas.

There were no additional applications for Linnean Macleay Fellowships in response to the Council’s invitation of 22nd September, 1943, and I have pleasure in reminding you that the Council reappointed Mr. J. A. Dulhunty, Dr. Germaine A. Joplin, Miss Frances M. V. Hackney and Miss Joan M. Crockford to Fellowships in Geology, Geology, Plant Physiology and Palaeontology respectively for one year from ist March, 1944.

During the coming year Mr. J. A. Dulhunty proposes to continue his research on coal, including a study of conditions of coal-measure sedimentation in the various regions of Kamilaroi deposition, in an attempt to establish specific environmental conditions characteristic of the different coal-measures and coal-bearing horizons. He will also study spore assemblages and other microscopical features on different coal-bearing horizons with the object of correlating coal seams. Mr. Dulhunty will also undertake a statistical examination of all available analytical and physical data concerning the Kamilaroi coals.

Dr. Germaine Joplin will continue her study of the belt of metamorphic rocks extending from Albury to Condobolin and hopes to compare and correlate this belt of rocks with the belt passing through Cooma. The ultimate purpose of the work is to investigate the igneous and metamorphic geology of these two belts with a view to interpreting the tectonic history of the Ordovician or New South Wales. During the year Dr. Joplin also hopes to continue her observations on the nature and deposition of the Upper Ordovician slates.

Miss Frances Hackney proposes to continue her investigations on the metabolism of Granny Smith apples. The respiratory behaviour of whole apples, and of slices of apples, which have undergone various periods of cool storage will be investigated with a view to obtaining information on the part played by changes in the resistance of the skin in limiting the respiration rate of the tissue. An attempt will also be made to obtain further information on the nature of the respiratory metabolism by studying the effects of various substances which might accelerate or inhibit the respiration of slices of tissue.

Miss Joan Crockford proposes to continue her researches on the development and distribution of Australian Palaeozoic Bryozoa, with particular reference to the distribu- tion of the Permian faunas.

We wish them success in their coming year’s work.

Tur IMPERATIVE NEED FoR FepERAL ConTrot oF Post-war PROTECTION oF NATURE.

The origin, radiation, and rapid decline of the Australian fauna may be divided into three remarkably unequal periods. Firstly, those ages prior to man’s advent, when great climatic and geological changes failed to check the rich radiation of marsupial life. Secondly, that long period of aboriginal occupation during which the biological balance remained fairly static, despite introduction of the first placental carnivore, the cunning dingo or wild dog. Thirdly, in violent contrast, we have the relatively infinitesimal period of white settlement, with its drastic disturbance of natural balance arising from

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. Vv

the inevitable sequence of clearing for crops and stock, ordeal by fire, poison, gun, and snare. and incredible importations such as the rabbit and fox.

Aborigines, because of their inability to cultivate and form settled colonies, wrought little faunal change, while the main effect of the dingo’s introduction was apparently to banish its largest carnivorous rival, the thylacine or ‘pouched-wolf”’, from the mainland. Tt is indeed an irony of natural law, not without tragic human parallel in the present phase of human history, that the prolonged security of. geological isolation, which encouraged the remarkably varied evolution of the marsupials, has left the slow-breeding and highly specialized mammals defenceless against the invasion of settlement, and their introduced enemies.

Almost a century ago that great bird lover, John Gould, shocked by the unrelenting way in which unique marsupials were driven from their native haunts, wrote with remarkable prescience of things to come: “Shortsighted indeed are the Anglo-Australians, or they would long ere this have made laws for the preservation of their highly singular, and wn many instances noble, indigenous animals.” Though each State of the Common- wealth subsequently provided varying measures of protection, about the time of Federa- tion in 1901, differing views concerning species, and the extent of protection, has militated against the success of laws which have been relaxed all too often for commercial gain.

Evidently Gould visualized, at the time of his far-seeing observations, some form of national control of Australian wild life, the need for which is indeed imperative if much of the remaining fauna is to survive the post-war decade of expansion in such matters as immigration, and irrigation for closer settlement. It is incontestable, therefore, that there was an immediate need for the inclusion of national control of fauna and flora within the Constitutional Amendment proposals for Post-war Reconstruction, not only regarding unified Federal control, but also for the consideration of territorial and inter- national adjustments, such as in the protection of wild life, and exploitation of whales and seals.

PROPOSALS FOR A COMMONWEALTH BIOLOGICAL SURVEY.

The paramount need for Commonwealth control of fauna and related problems, self- evident at the time of Federation, has been the subject of several recommendations of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science, authorita- tive State reports—and many presidential addresses. Obviously, unification of Federal and States’ management of fauna is essentially linked with the foundation of some co-ordinating agency of investigation and control, such as the United States Federal Bureau of Biological Survey, begun in 1885.

It is of relevant interest to members of this Society to know that Baron N. De Miklouho-Maclay, in the Proceedings for 1879, warmly advocated the foundation of a Zoological Station at Sydney as ‘‘an institution too important for all branches of biology for the idea to be dropped”. He also maintained that the combined working of three or four zoological stations, such as in Japan for the northern region, Samoa for the tropical, and in Sydney and New Zealand for the southern zone, should, in a few years, result ‘in presenting us with a very complete conception of the fauna of the Pacific!” It was not a matter for the Linnean Society alone, he said, but for “every friend of biological science in Austrailia’. In conclusion, Miklouho-Maclay stated that: “The interval between the bringing forward of my proposal (September, 1878) and the actual founda- tion will afford a good test of the degree and intensity of scientific life in Australia—at least in Sydney.”

In 1909, in his Presidential Address to the Zoology Section of the A.N.Z.A.A.S., Charles Hedley, distinguished Conchologist and Past-President of the Linnean Society, stated that ‘A biological survey should be organized and directed by an institution, such as a museum, a university, or a fisheries bureau”. This restricted conception was applied particularly to the marine fauna of Queensland, subsequently investigated by the Great Barrier Reef Committee. However, from subsequent resolutions concerning erosion, afforestation, prickly-pear, the blow-fly, and other faunal problems, it is clear that essential matters of biological survey had been considered by the A.N.Z.A.A.S. many years prior to adoption, by Resolution of the General Council, of the following proposal

vi PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

by Professor Sir Baldwin Spencer in 1921: “That in order to carry out immediately a co-ordinated Investigation into the Land and Freshwater Fauna and the Flora of Australia and Tasmania, the Societies and Institutions in the various States ... be requested to co-operate in the work and to take such steps ... more especially in securing in each State the active assistance of specialists in different branches of Botany and Zoology.”

This Resolution, which anticipated the activities of the present war-time Scientific Liaison Bureau, was evidently associated in Baldwin Spencer’s view with the foundation in the previous year of the “Commonwealth Institute of Science and Industry”, subse- quently the C.S.I.R., to which he referred in his Presidential Address to the Association Meeting of 1921, when stressing the fact “that we in Australasia have biological, agri- cultural, and ethnological problems peculiarly our own, calling aloud for investigation”’’.

In the same year, W. W. Froggatt, when State Government Entomologist, in his Presidential Address to the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, reviewed the question of establishing ‘a Bureau of Biological Survey or a Bureau of Economic Zoology’, and traced the history of the United States Bureau, and subsequent Federal legislation regarding the uniformity of State laws. In his Presidential Address to the Linnean Society the following year, Dr. G. A. Waterhouse strongly endorsed the immediate institution of a zoological survey in Australia, pointing out that although the need for such systematic surveys had been recognized in geology and botany, no provision had been made regarding zoology.

At the Wellington Meeting of the Association in 1923 a “Committee for the Investiga- tion into the Land and Fresh-water Fauna and the Flora of Australia and Tasmania” was reappointed. At the Perth Meeting in 1926, the General Council adopted the Zoology Section’s recommendation “That it is imperative for the better protection of Australian tauna that there should be greater uniformity in the various Acts of the several States and that the matter be brought under the notice of the Commonwealth Government which has control of export, with a suggestion that the subject might be made a matter for discussion at the next Premiers’ Conference.”

At the Hobart Meeting in 1928, the General Council of the Association adopted the Zoology Section’s recommendation ... “that the Association draws the attention of the Commonwealth Government and the Government of New Zealand to the wholesale destruction of whales in the adjacent Antarctic seas, and requests that, in conjunction with the Imperial Government, measures be taken to control the whale industry in Southern waters.” In spite of the urgency of this submission upon a matter of inter- national policy, and the excessive foreign exploitation of whales in the adjacent Sub- Antarctic and Antarctic waters, concerning which an Australian Antarctic Dependency was established in 1933, it appears evident that Commonwealth authority has not been effectively exercised either in the matter of control or exploitation.

The Hobart Meeting also appointed a Committee “to consider the question of a thorough scientific investigation and exploration of the western and south-western coasts and districts of Tasmania”. The Committee, with changes of personnel, was reappointed at the Brisbane Meeting of 1930 and, though progress was not reported, the importance of a zoo-geographical survey was reaffirmed. It is notable that the establishment of a very active Committee of Tasmanian Biological Survey in 1937 has not only provided effective collaboration with the State Animals and Birds Protection Board, but the experience gained must prove of great assistance in future deliberations concerning the foundation of an Australian Bureau of Biological Survey.

In 1928, J. R. Kinghorn, C.M.Z.S., Herpetologist and Ornithologist at the Australian Museum, in his Presidential Address to the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, reviewed our “Faunal Problems”, with especial reference to birds and the study and control methods of the United States Department of Agriculture. Commonwealth control of migratory fauna, and unification of State Protection Acts was advocated, to close the many loop-holes for illegal exploitation. The educative and economic importance of the fauna was stressed, as well as “the great necessity for the establishment of a Government Bureau of Economic Zoology” to keep pace with the Great Powers in the conservation of wild life.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. vii

In his Address to the same Society the following year, A. F. Basset Hull, M.B.E., F.R.Z.S., reviewed the subject “Our Native Fauna—A Wasted Asset” from the scientific, aesthetic, and economic viewpoint. He also quoted the majority recommendations of a State Fur-Farming Committee, appointed by the Minister for Agriculture (Mr. H. V. Thorby) in 1929. They are in general accord with the findings of the 1941 Committee appointed by the present Minister, the Hon. W. F’. Dunn, upon which I represented the Australian Museum as Mammalogist. Notable additions in the 1929 Report, however, were the following recommendations: ‘‘That a royalty be charged in respect of all skins of indigenous animals taken for sale, the money so collected to be used for the approved preservation of the flora and fauna of the State; also “That the State Government request the Commonwealth Government to make a biological survey regarding seal life in Australia’.

Dealing with the “Effectual Control” of native fauna “which recognizes no political boundaries’, Basset Hull, indicating the wasteful harvesting of our faunal riches, quoted astounding figures for the export vaiue of marsupial skins, and marine products, including pearl and trochus shell, and béche-de-mer, for the period 1921-1928. In stressing the uneconomic slaughter shown by the mainland figures for opossum, wallaby, and kangaroo during 1921-8, it is significantly noted that “exports of the native bear, wombat, and other marsupials were not recorded separately, but appeared to be incorporated under one heading, ‘other skins’, which may also include domestic animals”.

In Tasmania alone, stated Basset Hull, for the five years 1923-7, the annual total of marsupials’ skins taken in open seasons of 2-3 months ranged from 1,040,748 in 1923, to the minimum of 465,240 in the following year. It is significant, therefore, that the total protection covering the preceding two years 1921-2, merely built up the marsupial population for its decimation in 1923, with a resultant marked decline in the yield of succeeding open seasons. The combined total of kangaroo, wallaby, brush- and ring- tail opossum skins taken in the five-year period, during open seasons totalling one year, attained the colossal aggregate of 3,980,305. As a result of this faunal slaughter, the- Tasmanian Government reaped the relatively trifling amount of £68,500 in royalties and licence fees.

It must be emphasized that the subsequent collaboration of the Tasmanian Fauna and State Protection Boards has evolved the most comprehensive system of State control and conservation of fauna. The above figures, however, were more suggestive of a “five- year plan” for extermination rather than economic exploitation of fauna, which should have been utterly impossible in any State of the Commonwealth which actually controls exportation of fauna. The above brief summary provides unqualified support for Basset Hull’s final contention that national neglect of proper provision for the scientifically price- less fauna, irrespective of economic value, calis for the strongest legislative measures, and undivided control.

Ten years later, Basset Hull, in his Address to the 59th Annual General Meeting of the Royal Zoological Society, in 1939, emphasized that our native fauna was still a “wasting asset’, no steps having been taken to implement a system of unified control, or even to render the State laws more uniform. Obviously, he stated, “the existence of six separate States, five of which have no natural barriers to their boundaries, and all of which are not in agreement as to species to be protected, and the time of protection, renders the position almost hopeless’’.

Showing how lack of uniform State laws aids the illicit trapper, it was pointed out that no less than 80 species of the 700 Australian birds are wholly or partly protected in some States, and unprotected in one or more of the other States. A trapper can, therefore, transport protected species across the border and obtain permits for their export as the unprotected species of another State. Similarly, during the Queensland open season for koala in 1927, when approximately 600,000 of the unique marsupial were massacred by about 10,000 licensed trappers, it was an “open secret” of the fur market “that a large proportion of skins sold during that open season had been illicitly taken during the previous closed season, while many came across the border from New South Wales where the koala was still protected”.

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Stating that fauna protection was not seriously legislated for by any State until 1901, coincidently the year of Federation, and that illicit trade in skins was rife up to 1939, Basset Hull asserted that owing to the operation of Section 92 of the Common- wealth Constitution Act, nothing could be done to stop the practice—interstate trade being absolutely free. The fact that no Federal action was taken to check the Queens- land open season for koala, by limitation of the export of skins, supports his final contention of 1939 that “Jf the control of native fauna be placed as one of the subjects for a referendum and adopted, the future of our birds and animals should be provided for’.

BIOLOGICAL SURVEY AND THE CANBERRA MEETING.

Following on my appointment as Hon. Secretary of the Biological Survey of Australia Committee of the A.N.Z.A.A.S., at the Auckland Meeting of 1937, a considerable part of the above summary was prepared for submission to the Committee at the Canberra Meeting in January, 1939. The following Resolutions were framed by the Committee, and adopted by the General Council as a Recommendation to the Common- wealth Government:

1. That since the solution of many economic problems of a biological nature in Australia has been delayed because of the lack of knowledge of the geographical distribution of the different species comprising the fauna, it is desirable that an effort be made to co-ordinate the existing information, and to indicate and initiate lines of inquiry which might be followed by qualified persons carrying out systematic and ecological work in the different States.

2. That the work of a biological survey of Australia should be undertaken by the Commonwealth of Australia, and that the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research should be asked to undertake the task, for the following reasons:

(a). The distribution of animal and plant life is not limited by political State boundaries;

(b). The work of such a survey, and the cognate duties so important and valuable to Australia, can only be carried out by a permanent scien- tific department: the C.S.I.R. is the only institution at present in a position to undertake this work;

(c). It would be advantageous to the C.S.1.R. itself to have survey work carried out, because its organization includes departments dealing with problems of Entomology, Botany, Agriculture, and Forest Products, which are constantly in need of information, such as a Department of Biological Survey could supply.

(d). There would be nothing in such a proposal to prevent the C.S.I.R. Biological Survey Department calling upon specially qualified workers in various States, or enlisting the aid of university departments, museums, State officials, natural history societies or independent amateur workers. The C.S.I.R. already obtains the help of properly qualified persons in this way. The proposal, moreover, has the great advantage that invitations for co-operation would come from a body of experts, who could keep a check on the work. The work deputed to other bodies would thus go to those of recognized qualifications, without unnecessary duplication of effort.

(e). The proposal, apart from being the only practical scientific one, would in the end undoubtedly prove financially the most economical.

3. That the proposed Department of Biological Survey should have a small permanent staff to co-ordinate activities in the various States, and if necessary to arrange and even direct such activities.

It is to be understood that, for financial and other reasons, only certain more important aspects of biological survey could be attempted, one of which would

be an investigation into the causes of the depletion of certain valuable elements of the Australian fauna.

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Reviewing the above detailed summary, and recommendations of the A.N.Z.A.A.S., one might well ask why unified faunal control has not been the subject of Commonwealth action, especially under the Constitutional Amendment proposals for Post-war Recon- struction. Although the desirability of co-ordinated control was apparently unquestioned, there appears to have been a failure to realize that Federal control of fauna and flora, along with conservation of aborigines, is immediately concerned with national and inter- national obligations under the general heading of ‘Post-war Reconstruction”, which is the purpose of the Referendum Bill.

Lack of appropriate Federal action in the past has been due partly to the erroneous supposition that the major problems of wild-life control remain a matter of State administration. There has also doubtless been some unwarranted concern as to whether the States would cease to administer their intrastate faunal Acts. It is significant here to note that the United States Federal control of fauna began with the negotiation of international Migratory Bird Treaty Acts with Canada and Mexico, thus leading to a unified control of interstate fauna. The individual States of the Union retain control of species restricted to them, and may modify schedules within limits of major law, such co-operation being regarded as essential for the preservation of harmony between the Federal and State authorities.

As the co-ordination of Australian faunal management is linked with the estab- lishment of a Commonwealth agency of control, the question also arises as to why the manifold and ever-increasing interstate activities of the Federal C.S.I.R. have not led to the foundation of a co-ordinating bureau of general biological survey. Obviously, it would be impossible to add to the already vast scope of C.S.I.R. operations without adequate governmental provision in the matter of funds and personnel.

Unfortunately, however, in the past the very term “biological survey” seems to have provoked considerable ultra-academic objection, based on entirely obsolete conceptions of the scope and activities of the United States Bureau. The holders of these stultifying views must share the responsibility for the failure to include co-ordinated control of our fast-fading fauna on the Constitution Convention Agenda in 1942. The basic frustration, however, rests with the very fact that there has been no relevant Commonwealth authority, such as a Federal Ministry of Animal Conservation, to consider recommenda- tions providing for unified national control, and adequate international representation.

Past criticism of American methods of biological survey was based on some early intensive campaigns against small rodents and large predators, which left an exaggerated impression of vast destruction of fauna. Actually, our own fertile south-eastern region has experienced the tragic trail of the poison-cart, following that of the rabbit, resulting in the wholesale destruction of useful birds and mammals. The decaying rabbit carcases presumably amplified the blow-fly pest to the wool industry, while the marked increase of grass-hopper plagues evidently reflects the general disturbance of biological balance.

FAUNAL RESERVATIONS AND SOIL CONSERVATION.

The rabbit has now extended its activities, so strongly influencing the progress of erosion, to the south-western corner of Western Australia, where the fox was reliably reported in 1937 to be destroying flocks of black swans on the shallow lakes. The spreading of these faunal and economic pests to the fascinating zoo-geographical zone of the south-west, despite fencing barriers often rendered useless against rabbits by erosive drift, and quite ineffective against foxes, underlines the imperative need for adequate national reservations, from which foxes and rabbits are excluded.

Individual States have shown increasing concern for the provision of adequate faunal sanctuaries but, as pointed out in Dr. G. A. Brouwer’s book, The Organisation of Nature Protection in the Various Countries, sponsored by the Netherlands and American Committees, it is a fact that our larger flora and fauna parks exist mainly for public recreation, rather than for the re-creation of fauna. The control and care of most types of reservations is also utterly deficient in fire, forestry, and faunal supervision.

Regarding the State legislative proposal for the establishment of a “Kosciusko National Park”, your Council, as noted in the official section of this Address, considered it necessary to join kindred societies in protesting against the proposal to lease